Conjunctions: Coordinating

INTRODUCTION

Did you know that Whitney Houston’s favourite coordination is hand-eyeeeee? No? It’s still alright, because we will be looking at coordinating today. What are they?

Put simply, coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank in terms of syntactic importance. What is equal rank? Equal rank in the most basic sense means that the both parts are independent of each other, so that the meaning of one does not depend on the other. Now, what “meaning” means here is not super important to know, however. Meaning simply means that the sentences or parts are not dependent on each other, so to say.

Note that not all conjugations can be neatly categorized into this type or another. I am basing my categories on a variety of factors, but the important thing in the end is to know how something is used, rather than what kind of something it is.

VOCABULARY

चिया (ciyā) = Tea
बाझ्नु (bājhnu) = To quarrel
जन्मदिन (janmadin) = Birthday
बधाई दिनु (badhāī dinu) = To congratulate (lit. to give congratulations)
बिरामी (birāmī) = Sick
यस्तो-उस्तो (yasto-usto) = This and that (idiomatic, usto usually only appears as part of the pair)
धर्म (dharma) = 1. Righteousness 2. Religion 
दान (dān) = Giving; Donation
सेवा (sewā) = Service
दूतावास (dutāvās) = Embassy
राहदानी (rāhadānī) = Passport
नागरिकता (nāgariktā) = Citizenship (ID)

RA

र (ra) is what we call “and” in English. It is a very straight-forward conjunction, but is widely used as it joins together sentences, clauses, subjects and other parts together. र (ra) is also a particle, but we will explore that later. र (ra) can be used to join sentences:
ऊ सुत्यो र उठ्यो (ū sutyo ra uṭhyo)
= He slept and woke up.
[he + verb + and + verb] 

Like in English, the repeating subject is omitted. The above sentence is generally understood as:
ऊ सुत्यो + ऊ उठ्यो (ū sutyo +  ū uṭhyo)
= He slept. He woke up.

However, when we use र (ra), the second subject is omitted (if it is the same as the first sentence). र (ra) can be used to join items in a list as well:
चियासित बिस्कुट र केक मिठो हुन्छ (ciyā-sita biskuṭ ra kek miṭho huncha)
= Cake and biscuit(s) are tasty with tea
[tea (+) with + biscuit + and + cake + tasty + is]

Note how the verb is singular in Nepali. Nepali often does not employ plural case when the subjects are inanimate objects (vs. human animates). One more sentence:
किन कुकुर र बिरालो जस्तै बाझ्छौ ? (kina kukur ra birālo jastai bājhchau)
= Why (do you) fight like dog(s) and cat(s)
[why dog + and + cat + like + fight]

तथा (tathā) is a more formal way of saying र (ra). You will usually find this in formal textbooks or formal speech.

TARA

तर (tara) corresponds to “but” or “however” in English. Like र (ra), तर (tara) can be used to join sentences:
ऊ सुत्यो तर ऊ उठेन (ū sutyo tara ū uṭhena)
= He slept but he didn’t wake up
[he + verb + but + he + verb]

That was a bit ominous. The repeating subject can be omitted, but you can often keep it. 

हिजो मेरो जन्मदिन थियो तर कसैले मलाई बधाई दिएनन् (hijo mero janmadin thiyo tara kasaile ma-lāī badhāī dienan)
= Yesterday was my birthday however no one congratulated [wished] me
[yesterday + my + birthday + was + however + no one + me + congratulation(s) + verb]

तर (tara) and पनि (pani) are often combined to mean “but still”:
म त बिरामी छु तर पनि काम गर्नैपर्छ (ma ta birāmī chu tara pani kāma garnaiparcha)
= I am sick but still (I) must work
[I + emphasis particle + sick + copula + but + still + work + verb]

ANI

अनि (ani) also means “and” or “so”, but in this capacity it is closer in meaning to “and then”. अनि (ani) is used to show that an event or an action follows another event or an action:
ऊ घर गयो अनि भात पकायो (ū ghar gayo ani bhāt pakāyo)
= He went home and then (he) cooked rice
[he + house + went + and then + rice + cooked]

म यस्तो गर्छु अनि उस्तो गर्छु  (ma yasto garchu ani usto garchu)
= I’ll do this and that
[I + this + do + and + that + do]

अनि तिम्रो नाम के हो ? (ani timro nām ke ho)
= So what is your name?
[so + your + name + what + is]

Note that when अनि (ani) is used as “so”, the meaning has to be closer to “and then”:
अनि तिमीलाई के भयो ? (ani timī-lāī ke bhayo)
= So/And then what happened to you?
[so + you (+) dative case marker + what + verb]

अनि (ani) is also a filler word when speaking with people, in order to prompt the speaker to continue speaking. In this capacity, अनि (ani) could mean “and”, “go on”, “yeah”, “uh huh” etc:
A: हिजो पानी पर्दै थियो … (hijo pānī pardai thiyo)
B: अनि … (ani) 
A: अनि एउटा गाडी आयो … (ani euṭā gāḍī āyo)
B: अनि … (ani)
= A: It was raining yesterday…
B: And then…
A: And then a car came…
B: Go on…

KI, WĀ, YĀ

कि (ki), वा (wā) and या (yā) are three conjunctions with the very similar meaning of “or”. You are usually providing multiple options or choices to the listener or reader. Although they have great overlap and you can usually exchange one for the other, the way you can use them slightly differs, however.

The most straightforward of these three, and perhaps the most common, is कि (ki). It is usually used to string together two or more alternatives, and is slightly less formal than the other two:
तिमीलाई पोखरा कि काठमाडौं मन पर्छ? (timī-lāī pokharā ki kāṭhmāḍauṃ man parcha)
= (Do) you like Pokhara or Kathmandu?
[you (+) dative marker + Pokhara + or + Kathmandu + verb]

कि (ki) is used when you have two differing subjects, and you want to focus on one. Meanwhile, या (yā) is also used to present two or more alternatives, but you can also use it to introduce a synonym to the previous term:
धर्म भनेको दान या सेवा हो (dharma bhaneko dān yā sewā ho)
= Dharma is giving or service
[Dharma + means + giving + or + service + copula]

कि (ki) is preferred when formulating questions, while या (yā) is preferred when making a statement regarding two or more choices. In this sense, या (yā) has the meaning of “either”.

वा (wā) in some sense functions both like कि (ki) and या (yā). Note that the sentence below is a statement, so या (yā) is preferred:
तिमी राम्रो वा/या नराम्रो भए पनि … (timī rāmro wā/yā narāmro bhae pani)
= Even though you (may be) good or bad…
[you + good + or + bad + even though]

तँ आउँछस् वा/कि घरमा नै बस्छस् ? (ta~ āu~chas wā/ki ghar-mā nai baschas)
= (Are) you (going to) come or (are you going to) stay at home?
[you + come + or + house (+) locative case marker + particle + stay]

Overall, they remain pretty synonymous and you can theoretically use कि (ki) for everything. Here is a statement where you could use any of the three:
दूतावास आउनुभन्दा अगाडि राहदानी कि/वा/या नागरिकता बोक्नुहोस् (dūtāvās āunu-bhandā agāḍi rāhadānī ki/wā/yā nāgariktā boknuhos)
= Before coming (to the) embassy, (please) carry (your) passport or citizenship (ID)
[embassy + coming (gerund) (+) postposition + before + passport + or + citizenship + verb]

Note that the above sentence requires a postposition भन्दा (bhandā) to indicate a separation required between a task (having some ID) from an event (visiting the embassy). 

अथवा (athawā) is a more formal way of all these three.

SUMMARY

• Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank in terms of syntactic importance.
• र (ra) is used like “and” and is used to join two or more parts.
• तर (tara) corresponds to “but” or “however” in English.
• तर (tara) and पनि (pani) are often combined to mean “but still”.
• अनि (ani) also means “and” or “so”, but in this capacity it is closer in meaning to “and then”.
• कि (ki), वा (wā) and या (yā) are three conjunctions with the very similar meaning of “or”. 

Conjunctions: Introduction

INTRODUCTION

The Hydra is a mythical creature in Greek mythology that resembled a grotesque serpent with many heads. However, it’s body is still singular, and this “many heads” representation resembles Hindu mythology’s demon king Ravana, who was a man with 10 heads. One could say that their heads were conjoined, though I think one could argue that they were actually fully separate? I am not sure. One thing that I do know, however, is that the word “conjoined” (which leads to the word conjunction) comes from the Latin word coniungo, from con– meaning “together” and iungo meaning “join”. In grammar, we have words that essentially join together two parts of a sentence so we can express ideas that are more developed and complex. We call these “conjunctions”.

A conjunction is a word that joins other words or phrases together into sentences. Conjunctions are called संयोजक (saṃyojak) in Nepali.

TYPES OF CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are fairly straight forward in Nepali because they generally modify the final placement of the verb, which is often at the final position. Rather, what they do is link up sentences together to form a larger sentence. Take the following sentences:

I went to the stall and bought tea.
He is here because he wants to visit the museum.
You are neither the fastest nor the slowest.

Each sentence has a different type of conjunction used. The first is an example of a coordinating conjunction. The second is an example of a subordinating conjunction. Lastly, the final sentence uses a correlative conjunction. Like in English, Nepali has three types of conjunctions, and we will be looking at them below.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank in terms of syntactic importance. While it is not entirely necessary to know in-depth about what syntax is, it is really advantageous to know what they are. However, not knowing them do not impede learning in any way. In simple terms, we can look at an example of a coordinating conjunction below:
I went outside and played football.

There are several coordinating conjunctions in Nepali. Some of the are: र (ra), तर (tara), अनि (ani) etc.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join together a main clause and a subordinate clause together, where the subordinate clause requires the main clause to make complete sense. The following is a subordinating conjunction(s):
I went outside because I wanted to play football.

There are several subordinating conjunctions in Nepali. Some of the are: किनभने (kinabhane), तैपनि (taipani), त्यसैले (tyasaile) etc.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that act as to join up two clauses together, such that the two clauses are co-dependent on each other. The following is a correlative conjunction(s):
I neither went outside nor played football.

In Nepali, correlative conjunctions are slightly different because there are some that do not come in pairs, so it is duplicated instead. However, this reduplication part is optional, so they are often used only once. This reduplication without losing meaning is what sets them apart from the other conjunction types. There are some correlative conjunctions in Nepali. Some of the are: न (na), कि (ki), जब…तब (jaba…taba) etc. 

POSITION OF CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are usually placed between the two sentences it joins, but sometimes they can appear at the beginning or the end of the sentence. However, they are usually exceptions, so they will be discussed individually.  Conjunctions are written seperately from the word they intend to modify.

SUMMARY

• A conjunction is a word that joins other words or phrases together into sentences. 
• Nepali has three types of conjunctions.
• Coordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are placed between words, phrases, clauses, or sentences of equal rank in terms of syntactic importance.
• Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that join together a main clause and a subordinate clause together, where the subordinate clause requires the main clause to make complete sense.  
• Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that act as to join up two clauses together, such that the two clauses are co-dependent on each other.
• Conjunctions are usually placed between the two sentences it joins.
• Conjunctions are written seperately from the word they intend to modify.

EXERCISES

A. IDENTIFY THE CONJUNCTIONS IN THE FOLLOWING PARAGRAPH.

I ate some fruitcake while I was patiently waiting for my friend to arrive. I was tired and a bit anxious, for it was the first time I would have seen him in five months. The toll of the pandemic rolled through us but we remained strong. Neither he nor I had the slightest idea what would come next, therefore we decided to remain strong and hopeful. Faith, it seems, was the only thing grasping our string of fate from unfurling, yet deep inside I knew that it was love that kept us alive.  

B. IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF CONJUNCTION USED IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

1. I looked towards the sky and the ever-growing horizon. 
2. Either we go or we stay. There is no second option.
3. She knew she was the only one who could solve the question, so she spoke up.
4. You said you didn’t do it because you were too busy? Really?
5. Just remember that we’ll be there for you.

ANSWERS

A. I ate some fruitcake while I was patiently waiting for my friend to arrive. I was tired and a bit anxious, for it was the first time I would have seen him in five months. The toll of the pandemic rolled through us but we remained strong. Neither he nor I had the slightest idea what would come next, therefore we decided to remain strong and hopeful. Faith, it seems, was the only thing grasping our string of fate from unfurling, yet deep inside I knew that it was not hope but rather love that kept us alive.
B.1. Coordinating
B.2. Correlative
B.3. Coordinating
B.4. Subordinating
B.5. Subordinating

Postpositions: Temporal

INTRODUCTION

Time flies like an arrow, and fruit flies like a banana. Time and time again we hear more about time, but is it time to time our actions so they go according to time? Time is temporary; the words “temporary” and “temporal” (time) both come from the Latin temporalis, which means “time”.

From a physics perspective, time is also relative. In fact, time is linked with space. Space-time transcends our perspective. Maybe this is why so many postpositions that describe “space” (position) can also be used to describe time. Thus, we arrive, through our imppecable reasoning that space and time are related, to our mainpoint: temporal postpositions.

Temporal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding time. For example, the word made bold is what a temporal postposition is:
I will do the work until tomorrow.

Let’s have a look at temporal positions, and you will find them to be quite similar to local positions. It’s all connected!

VOCABULARY

पुग्नु (pugnu) = (here) 1. To reach | 2. To be enough
सकाइहाल्नु (sakāihālnu) = To finish a task (as soon as possible)
सकिनु (sakinu) = To be finished
पर्सि (parsi) = Day after tomorrow

BHITRA

भित्र (bhitra) has the meanings of “within”. It can also mean “by”. The general feeling of the word is to point towards an even that must occur within a specified timeframe. For example:
हामी ४ बजेभित्र पुग्नुपर्छ  (hāmī cār baje-bhitra pugnuparcha)
= We must reach (there) by 4 o’ clock
[we + four + o’ clock (+) bhitra-postposition + verb]

काम सात मिनटभित्र सकाइहाल्  (kām sāt minaṭ-bhitra sakāihāl)
= Finish (the) work within seven minute(s)
[work + seven + minute(s) (+) bhitra-postposition + verb]

AGĀḌI / AGHI

अगाडि (agāḍi) has the meaning of “before”. It can also be “ago”. This is used to indicate a period in time before the one mentioned. For example:
सात मिनटअगाडि के भयो? (sāt minaṭ-agāḍi ke bhayo)
= What happened seven minute(s) before?
[seven + minute(s) (+) agāḍi-postposition + what + copula]

काम सात मिनटअगाडि सक्यो (kām sāt minaṭ-agāḍi sakyo)
= Work finished seven minute(s) ago
[work + seven + minute(s) (+) agāḍi-postposition + verb]

अगाडि (agāḍi) can also be replaced by अघि (aghi) to mean the same thing:
काम सात मिनटअघि सक्यो (kām sāt minaṭ-aghi sakyo)
= Work finished seven minute(s) ago
[work + seven + minute(s) (+) aghi-postposition + verb]

PACHĀḌI / PACHI

पछाडि (pachāḍi) has the meanings of “after”. The general feeling of the word is to describe actions after a given period of time. For example:
सात मिनटपछाडि के भयो ? (sāt minaṭ-pachāḍi ke bhayo)
= What happened seven minute(s) after?
[seven + minute(s) (+) pachāḍi-postposition + what + copula]

काम सात मिनटपछाडि सक्यो (kām sāt minaṭ-pachāḍi sakyo)
= Work finished after seven minute(s)
[work + seven + minute(s) (+) pachāḍi-postposition + verb]

After my brilliant time-saving examples, पछाडि (pachāḍi) can also be replaced by पछि (pachi) to mean the same thing. The difference is that “pachi” is faster to say:
सोमबारपछि मात्रै आउन मिल्छ रे ! (somabār-pachi mātrai āuna milcha re)
= (We’re) allowed to come only after Monday, it is!
[Monday (+) pachi-postposition + only + to come + allowed + particle]

SAMMA

सम्म (samma) has the meanings of “until” or “till”. The general feeling of the word is to indicate an upper range, or threshold. For example:
पार्टी ७ बजेसम्म छ (pārṭī sāt baje-samma cha)
= (The) party is until 7 o’ clock
[party + seven + o’ clock (+) samma-postposition + copula]

हिजोसम्म काम सकिएको थिएन (hijo-samma kām sakieko thiena)
= (The) work hadn’t finished till yesterday
[yesterday (+) samma-postposition + work + verb]

TIRA

तिर (tira) has the meaning of “around”. It gives an approximate feeling of time, to indicate that the time period is moving towards it. This is quite an important postposition in case of telling the time, as it allows you approximate time. You can’t use तर्फ (tarpha) to substitute tira, however. For example:
११ बजेतिर के भयो ? (eghāra baje-tira ke bhayo)
= What happened around 11 o’ clock?
[eleven + o’ clock (+) tira-postposition + what + copula]

ऊ पर्सितिर मात्रै आउँछ रे ! (ū parsi-tira mātrai āum̐cha re)
= He (will) come only around day after tommorrow, he said!
[he + day after tomorrow (+) tira-postposition + only + come + he said]

You will note that this is an approximate time. It’s not an exact time, so he may arrive day after tomorrow, or maybe tomorrow, or maybe never. It’s not very certain. This also has the effect that removing the “tira” makes the sentence still grammatically correct, with the exception that time will then be exact:
ऊ पर्सि मात्रै आउँछ रे ! (ū parsi mātrai āum̐cha re)
= He (will) only come (on the) day after tommorrow, he said!
[he + day after tomorrow + only + come + he said]

Note that in the above sentence, it is certain that he will only arrive day after tomorrow. The time is exact when you forgo the use of tira.

SUMMARY

• Temporal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding time.
• भित्र (bhitra) has the meanings of “within”. It can also mean “by”.
• अगाडि (agāḍi) has the meaning of “before”. It can also be “ago”.
• पछाडि (pachāḍi) has the meanings of “after”.
• पछाडि (pachāḍi) can also be replaced by पछि (pachi) to mean the same thing.
• तिर (tira) has the meaning of “around”.
• You can’t use तर्फ (tarpha) to substitute tira, however. 
• तिर (tira) gives the feeling of an approximate time, so removing the “tira” results in the time given to be be exact.

Postpositions: Modal

INTRODUCTION

Modals. They’re the every Instagram influencer out there. Wait, they’re models. I was actually thinking of the parts or units that can be used to construct a more complex structure. Wait, that’s module. What I really mean is a learning platform or course management system. Wait, that’s Moodle. Let me think again. They are words that tell us how things are achieved. Yes, that’s what a modal is. 

So, what are modal postpositions? Modal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information about how an action or things are done. For example, in the following sentence, the word made bold is what a modal postposition is:
She went with the flow.

There are not many modal prepositions, nonetheless we will go over them in detail below.

VOCABULARY

व्रत (vrata) = A pious observance, usually a religious fast 
देब्रे (debre) = Left
दाहिने (dāhine) = Right
बाँच्नु (bām̐cnu) = To live
प्रवेश निषेध (praveś niṣedh) = Entry forbidden 
कागज (kāgaj) = Paper
बाझ्नु (bājhnu) = To fight
थाल्नु (thālnu) = To start

ANUSĀR

अनुसार (anusār) has the meaning of “according to”. It indicates how actions are achieved through means appropriate to the circumstances. For example:
ऊअनुसार हिजो गाडी आएको थियो (ū-anusār hijo gāḍī āeko thiyo)
= (The) car had come yesterday according to him/her
[he/she (+) anusār-postposition + yesterday + car + had]

समयअनुसार भात खानुपर्छ (samaya-anusār bhāt khānuparcha)
= (We) should eat rice according to (the) time
[time (+) anusār-postposition + rice + verb]

BĀHEK

बाहेक (bāhek) has the meaning of “except” or “besides”. It indicates how actions or entities are excluded from something. For example:
रामबाहेक सबै आए (rām-bāhek sabai āe)
= Everyone came except Ram
[Ram (+) bāhek-postposition + everyone + verb]

व्रतको बेलामा पानीबाहेक केही खानुहुँदैन (vrata-ko belā-mā pānī-bāhek kehī khānuhum̐daina)
= (One) should not consume anything except water at (the) time of fasting
[fasting (+) ko-case marker + time (+) mā-case marker + water (+) bāhek-postposition + anything + verb]

BHANDĀ

भन्दा (bhandā) is a comparative postposition that has the meaning of “than”. It is used to compare two things to see which has the greater or lesser of the said quality. You cannot compare similar things, however, only dissimilar things. For example:
हिजो ४ जनाभन्दा धेरै मान्छे आए (hijo cār janā-bhandā dherai mānche āe)
= More than 4 people came yesterday
[yesterday + 4 + counter (+) bhandā-postposition + more + people + verb]

मेरो देब्रे हात दाहिनेभन्दा ठुलो छ (mero debre hāt dāhine-bhandā ṭhulo cha)
= My left hand is bigger than (my) right (hand)
[my + left + hand + right (+) bhandā-postposition + big + copula]

मलाई बन्दाभन्दा साग मिठो लाग्छ (ma-lāī bandā-bhandā sāg miṭho lāgcha)
= Spinach is tastier than cabbage for me
[I (+) lāī-case marker + cabbage (+) bhandā-postposition + spinach + tasty + verb]

BINĀ

बिना (binā) is a postposition that has the meaning of “without”. It is used to indicate the absence of something. Another way of saying this is बेगर (begar). For example:
म तिमीबिना बाँच्नसक्छु (ma timī-binā bām̐cnasakchu)
= I can live without you
[I + you (+) binā-postposition + verb]

An interesting way बिना (binā) can function is by acting as an adverb. You can replace बिना (binā) with बेगर (begar) in cases it acts as a postposition, but not as an adverb. So, for the above sentence, you can replace बिना (binā), but not in the following one:
बिना कागज प्रवेश निषेध (binā kāgaj praveś niṣedh)
= Without paper entry forbidden
[binā-adverb + entry + forbidden] 

You cannot replace बिना (binā) with बेगर (begar) in the above sentence, since it functions as an adverb here. You can however, rearrange it to make it function as a postposition and it will work:
कागज(बिना/बेगर) प्रवेश निषेध (kāgaj(binā/begar) praveś niṣedh)

SAM̐GA

सँग (sam̐ga) is a postposition that has the meaning of “with”. It is used to indicate accompaniment. For example:
केसँग भात खान्छौ ? (ke-sam̐ga bhāt khānchau)
= With what (will you) eat rice?
[what (+) sam̐ga-postposition + + rice + verb]

मेरीसँग जाऊ (merī-sam̐ga jāū)
= Go with Mary
[Mary (+) sam̐ga-postposition + verb] 

मेरीसँग कागज छ (merī-sam̐ga kāgaj cha)
= With Mary is (the) paper [Mary has the paper]
[Mary (+) sam̐ga-postposition + paper + copula]

The sentence above is how you normally phrase sentences to show possession.

SITA

सित (sita) is a postposition that has the meaning of “with”. It is used to indicate accompaniment, relations, opposition or possession. In many ways, you can replace सँग (sam̐ga) with सित (sita). For example:
म आज आमासित बजार गएँ (ma āja āmā-sita bajāra gaem̐)
= I went (to the) bazaar with (my) mother
[I + today + mother (+) sita-postposition + bazaar + verb]

Usually, you can substitute  सँग (sam̐ga) with सित (sita). For example:
के(सँग/सित) भात खान्छौ ? (ke(-sam̐ga/-sita) bhāt khānchau)
= With what (will you) eat rice?

However, in some cases, the सित (sita) is preferred.

Indicates opposition

When you indicate opposition, it means “in opposition to” or “along with”. For example:
म मेरो साथीसित बाझ्न थालेँ (ma mero sāthī-sita bājhna thālem̐)
= I started to fight with my friend
[I + my + friend (+) sita-postposition + to fight + verb]

मेरीसँग जाऊ (merī-sam̐ga jāū)
= Go with Mary
[Mary (+) sam̐ga-postposition + verb]

SUMMARY

• Modal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information about how an action or things are done.
• अनुसार (anusār) has the meaning of “according to”.
• बाहेक (bāhek) has the meaning of “except” or “besides”.
• भन्दा (bhandā) is a comparative postposition that has the meaning of “than”.
• बिना (binā) is a postposition that has the meaning of “without”.
• सँग (sam̐ga) is a postposition that has the meaning of “with”.
• सित (sita) is a postposition that has the meaning of “with”.
• Usually, one can replace सँग (sam̐ga) with सित (sita).

EXERCISES

Postpositions: Local

INTRODUCTION

The farmer’s market near where I live sells a lot of locally produced organic produce, which they claim to contain a thousand good qualities. What is so local about them? Well, when you say something is locally made, you refer to a particular location at which the thing is manufactured at. In case of linguistics, the location of something is particularly interesting, as it gives you information about the location of something or someone.

Local postpositions are postpositions that give more information about the location of something or someone. For example, the word made bold is what a local postposition is:
The apple is above the box.

In fact, we can extend the idea of something being located somewhere into a neat graphic show below. The equivalent words in Nepali are written below the figure in italics, while the translation is given above the figure in bold.

Now we have a basic concept of local postpositions, let’s explore them further. A note is that like most postpositions, they must be written together with the word they modify. Pronouns must also be in the oblique case if necessary (as how it is in case markers).

VOCABULARY

मन (man) = Heart (emotional)
भावना (bhāwanā) = Emotion(s)
उभिरहनु (ubhirahanu) = To stand continuously
भिर (bhir) = Cliff
चुरोट (curoṭ) = Cigarette
चुरोट खानु (curoṭ khānu) = To smoke (a cigarette) 
मन्दिर (mandir) = Temple
हात्ती (hāttī) = Elephant
पर्खाल (parkhāl) = Boundary wall; Fence
गाउँ (gāum̐) = Village
डाँडा (ḍām̐ḍā) = Hill 

STATIC POSTPOSITIONS

Static postpositions are local postpositions that give the static location of an object, that is, the location unchanging and fixed. There is no motion indicated, and these postpositions typically consist of pointers as to where an object is located.

Māthi 

माथि (māthi) has the meanings of “above”, “up” or “over”. It can also mean “on”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects on something, or at a higher elevation. For example:
बिरालो कुर्सीमाथिसुत्दै छ (birālo kursī-māthi sutdai cha)
= (The) cat is sleeping on (the) chair
[cat + chair (+) māthi-postposition + sleeping + is]

किताबमाथि स्याउ छ (kitāb-māthi syāu cha)
= (An) apple is on (the) book
[book (+) māthi-postposition + apple + copula]

Muni

मुनि (muni) has the meanings of “below”, “down” or “under”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects below something, or at a lower elevation. For example:
बिरालो कुर्सीमुनि सुत्दै छ (birālo kursī-muni sutdai cha)
= (The) cat is sleeping under (the) chair
[cat + chair (+) muni-postposition + sleeping + is]

छातामुनि के छ ? (chātā-muni ke cha)
= What is under (the) umbrella?
[umbrella (+) muni-postposition + what +copula]

Bhitra 

भित्र (bhitra) has the meanings of “inside”. It can also mean “in”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects inside something, or contained within something. For example:
कुकुर घरभित्र कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-bhitra karāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling inside (the) house
[dog + house (+) bhitra-postposition + howling + is]

मान्छेको मनभित्र कस्तो भावना हुन्छ ? (mānche-ko man-bhitra kasto bhāwanā huncha)
= What kind of feeling(s) is inside (a) person’s heart?
[person (+) ko-case marker + heart (+) bhitra-postposition + what kind of + feeling(s) + copula]

Bāhira 

बाहिर (bāhira) has the meanings of “outside”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects outside something, or contained outside something. For example:
कुकुर घरबाहिर कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-bāhirakarāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling outside (the) house
[dog + house (+) bāhira-postposition + howling + is]

घरबाहिर को उभिरहँदै छ ? (ghar-bāhira ko ubhiraham̐dai cha)
= Who is (continuously) standing outside (the) house?
[house (+) bāhira-postposition + who + keep standing + is]

Agāḍi 

अगाडि (agāḍi) has the meaning of “in front of”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects in front of something. For example:
कुकुर घरअगाडि कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-agāḍikarāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling in front of (the) house
[dog + house (+) agāḍi-postposition + howling + is]

यो बाटोअगाडि भिर छ (yo bāṭo-agāḍi bhira cha)
= (A) cliff is in front of this road
[this + road (+) agāḍi-postposition + cliff + copula]

Pachāḍi 

पछाडि (pachāḍi) has the meanings of “behind of” or “behind”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects behind something. For example:
कुकुर घरपछाडि कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-pachāḍikarāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling behind (the) house
[dog + house (+) pachāḍi-postposition + howling + is]

रुखपछाडि को चुरोट खाँदै छ ? (rukh-pachāḍi ko curoṭ khām̐dai cha)
=  Who is smoking cigarette(s) behind (the) tree?
[tree (+) pachāḍi-postposition + who + cigarette + consuming + is]

Nira  

निर (nira) has the meanings of “near”, “nearby” or “close by”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects at the vicinity of something, but not “at” something. Another way to say “nira” is to use the following words, which have identical meanings: नेर (nera), नजिक (najik), छेउ (cheu). For example:
कुकुर मनिर बस्यो  (kukur ma-nira basyo)
= (The) dog sat near me
[dog + me (+) nira-postposition + verb]

When I mentioned interchangeability, I meant something like this:
लाजिम्पाट(निर /नेर /नजिक/ छेउ) नै बस्छु! (lājimpāṭ(nira /nera /najika /cheu) nai baschu)
= I (do) live near/around Lazimpat!
[Lazimpat (+) nira-postposition + nai-particle + verb]

The general idea is that you don’t live exactly at Lazimpat, but somewhere close to it. This is conveyed by all three variations of the Postposition. Another way you say that is “around” in English, giving a general description rather than a specific one.

Note that नजिक (najik) is also an adverb, so in places where it functions as such, you cannot replace it with nira or nera, which are both only postpositions.

Wāri 

वारि (wāri) has the meaning of “on the same side of”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects which are located on the same side as the speaker. This is of course, relative to the speaker, so your wāri may not necessarily be someone else’s wāri. For example:
बाटोवारिएउटा कुकुर कराउँदै छ (bāṭo-wāri euṭā kukur karāum̐dai cha)
= A dog is howling on the same side of (the) road
[road (+) wāri-postposition + one + dog + howling + is]

गाडी बाटोवारि रोकिदिनुहोस् (gāḍī bāṭo-wāri rokidinuhos)
=  (Please) stop the car on the same side of (the) road (as me)
[tree (+) pachāḍi-postposition + who cigarette + consuming + is]

Pāri

पारि (pāri) has the meanings of “on the other side of” or “across”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects which are located on the opposite side as the speaker. This is of course, relative to the speaker, so your pāri may not necessarily be someone else’s pāri, but could be their wāri. For example:
बाटोपारि एउटा कुकुर कराउँदै छ (bāṭo-pāri euṭā kukur karāum̐dai cha)
= A dog is howling on the other side of (the) road
[road (+) pāri-postposition + one + dog + howling + is]

मन्दिर खोलापारि छ  (mandir kholā-pāri cha)
= (The) temple is across (the) river
[temple + river (+) pāri-postposition + copula]

Madhye

मध्ये (madhye) has the meaning of “amongst” or “among”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects which are in the midst of other things. For example:
यो घरहरूमध्ये कुन घर तिम्रो हो ? (yo ghar-harū-madhye kun ghar timro ho)
= Which house is your(s) among these houses?
[this + house (+) pluralizer (+) madhye-postposition + which +house + your(s) + copula]

सबैमध्ये राम्रो यो हो (sabai-madhye rāmro yo ho)
= This is (the) best amongst all
[all (+) madhye-postposition + good +this + copula]

Bic

बिच (bic) is not exactly a postposition, as it is a noun, but when used with the genitive case marker ko, it functions as a postposition to give the meaning of “between (of)”. The first term is marker-optional, that is, you may or may not mark it with a genitive case marker. However, the second term must take a mandatory genitive case marker. An important note is that words modified by genitives still follow the rules of genitive marker addition, that is, if you have certain pronouns, then those pronouns have to be modified as to fit with the genitive marker. For example:
हात्ती तिम्रो र मेरो बिच छ (hāttī timro ra mero bic cha)
= (The) elephant is between you and me.
[elephant + your + and + mine + between + copula]

It is not uncommon to use the locative case marker mā along with bic to give a sense of location:
हाम्रो बिचमा के दुस्मनी छ ? (hāmro bic-mā ke dusmanī cha)
= What enmity there is in between us?
[our + between + mā-case marker + what + enmity + copula]

DYNAMIC PREPOSITIONS

Dynamic postpositions are local postpositions that give the dynamic location of an object, that is, the location can vary or indicates some form of motion. 

Samma 

सम्म (samma) has the meanings of “until” or “till”. The general feeling of the word is to indicate an upper range, or threshold. For example:
मेरी घरसम्म हिड्ँदै गएछ (merī ghar-samma hiḍm̐dai gaecha)
= Mary went walking until (her) home, it seems! 
[Mary + home (+) samma-postposition + walking + agyāt-went]

यहाँसम्म जानुहोस् अनि घुम्नुहोस् (yahām̐-samma jānuhos ani ghumnuhos)
= (Please) go up to here then turn
[Here (+) samma-postposition + go + then + turn]

Tira

तिर (tira) has the meaning of “towards” or “to”. The general feeling of the word is to indicate an object in direction of something or someone. Another way of saying तिर (tira) is तर्फ (tarpha). For example:
मेरी घरतिर हिड्ँदै गयो (merī ghar-tira hiḍm̐dai gayo)
= Mary went walking towards (her) home
[Mary + home (+) tira-postposition + walking + agyāt-went]

You can also use either tira or tarpha:
म(तिर /तर्फ) हेर्नुहोस् (ma-(tira /tarpha) hernuhos)
= (Please) look towards me
[me (+) tira-postposition + verb]

पट्टि (paṭṭi) is also another way of saying तिर (tira), but the difference is that पट्टि (paṭṭi) is more like “facing towards” and tends to be more static. The meaning is also closer to “near to”:
घरपट्टि पर्खाल बनाउनु (ghar-paṭṭi parkhāla banāunu)
= To make (a) fence facing towards (the) house
[house (+) paṭṭi-postposition + fence + verb]

GENITIVE PHRASING

A different way of expressing location also exists in Nepali, that uses the postposition along with a genitive marker to form an entirely new phrase. We call this genitive phrasing, and is very common in Nepali. Let’s break that down. Take the following sentence:
गाउँ डाँडामुनि छ (gāum̐ ḍām̐ḍā-muni cha)
= (The) village is under (the) hill
[village + hill (+) postposition + copula]

Now, you want to talk about the village without using the copula, as to just refer to it as “the village under the hill”, and say for example that “it rained on the village under the hill”. How do you do that?

You first have to establish the relationship between the words. Chiefly, you have to know if A is a part of B, or the other way around. For example, when I say “The cat is under the table”, the cat is the subject (A part), and the subject is at a location (B part along with an adposition). When you do so, you now modify the B part (keeping the postposition) and adding the A part after it to get the same phrase. For example, in the previous Nepali sentence, “the village is under the hill”. We can deduce that the village is part A (the subject) and it located under the hill, making it part B. Now, keep the B part intact (the one with the postposition), and move it to the first position. Add the genitive case marker ko. Then, move the A part to the second part, and treat the overall statement as a phase. For example, our sentence turns into:
डाँडामुनिको गाउँ (ḍām̐ḍā-muni-ko gāum̐)
= (The) village under (the) hill
[hill (+) postposition (+) genitive marker + village]

This phrase can be treated as a single word, so you can make sentences by adding case markers. For example:
डाँडामुनिको गाउँमा पानी पर्‍यो (ḍām̐ḍā-muni-ko gāum̐-mā pānī par‍yo) 
= It rained at (the) village under (the) hill 

This would be no different than somewhere else, such as:
लाजिम्पाटमा पानी पर्‍यो (lājimpāṭ-mā pānī par‍yo)
= It rained at Lazimpat

As mentioned before, this type of phrasing is very common, as you seldom use copulas to describe locations, but rather bundle the idea of location along with another idea to give a more complex sentence:
खोलापारिको मन्दिरमा को जान्छ? (kholā-pāri-ko mandir-mā ko jāncha)
= Who goes to (the) temple across (the) river?

Let’s look at one more:
घरपछाडिको कुकुर कराउँदै छ (ghar-pachāḍi-ko kukur karāum̐dai cha)
= The dog behind the house is barking

SUMMARY

• Local postpositions are postpositions that give more information about the location of something or someone.
• Static postpositions are local postpositions that give the static location of an object, that is, the location unchanging and fixed.
• माथि (māthi) has the meanings of “above”, “up” or “over”. It can also mean “on”.
• मुनि (muni) has the meanings of “below”, “down” or “under”.
• भित्र (bhitra) has the meanings of “inside”.
• बाहिर (bāhira) has the meanings of “outside”.
• अगाडि (agāḍi) has the meaning of “in front of”.
• पछाडि (pachāḍi) has the meanings of “behind of” or “behind”.
• निर (nira) has the meanings of “near”, “nearby” or “close by”.
• Other ways of saying निर (nira): नेर (nera), नजिक (najik), छेउ (cheu).
• वारि (wāri) has the meaning of “on the same side of”.
• पारि (pāri) has the meanings of “on the other side of” or “across”.
• मध्ये (madhye) has the meaning of “amongst” or “among”.
• बिच (bic), when used with the genitive case marker ko, functions as a postposition to mean “between”.
• Dynamic postpositions are local postpositions that give the dynamic location of an object, that is, the location can vary or indicates some form of motion.
• सम्म (samma) has the meanings of “until” or “till”.
• तिर (tira) has the meaning of “towards” or “to”.
• Other ways of saying तिर (tira) are: तर्फ (tarpha), पट्टि (paṭṭi).
• In Genitive Phrasing, you refer back to the word by changing the structure slightly using the genitive case marker.