Postpositions: Local

INTRODUCTION

The farmer’s market near where I live sells a lot of locally produced organic produce, which they claim to contain a thousand good qualities. What is so local about them? Well, when you say something is locally made, you refer to a particular location at which the thing is manufactured at. In case of linguistics, the location of something is particularly interesting, as it gives you information about the location of something or someone.

Local postpositions are postpositions that give more information about the location of something or someone. For example, the word made bold is what a local postposition is:
The apple is above the box.

In fact, we can extend the idea of something being located somewhere into a neat graphic show below. The equivalent words in Nepali are written below the figure in italics, while the translation is given above the figure in bold.

Now we have a basic concept of local postpositions, let’s explore them further. A note is that like most postpositions, they must be written together with the word they modify. Pronouns must also be in the oblique case if necessary (as how it is in case markers).

VOCABULARY

मन (man) = Heart (emotional)
भावना (bhāwanā) = Emotion(s)
उभिरहनु (ubhirahanu) = To stand continuously
भिर (bhir) = Cliff
चुरोट (curoṭ) = Cigarette
चुरोट खानु (curoṭ khānu) = To smoke (a cigarette)
मन्दिर (mandir) = Temple
हात्ती (hāttī) = Elephant
पर्खाल (parkhāl) = Boundary wall; Fence
गाउँ (gāum̐) = Village
डाँडा (ḍām̐ḍā) = Hill

STATIC POSTPOSITIONS

Static postpositions are local postpositions that give the static location of an object, that is, the location unchanging and fixed. There is no motion indicated, and these postpositions typically consist of pointers as to where an object is located.

Māthi

माथि (māthi) has the meanings of “above”, “up” or “over”. It can also mean “on”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects on something, or at a higher elevation. For example:
बिरालो कुर्सीमाथिसुत्दै छ (birālo kursī-māthi sutdai cha)
= (The) cat is sleeping on (the) chair
[cat + chair (+) māthi-postposition + sleeping + is]

किताबमाथि स्याउ छ (kitāb-māthi syāu cha)
= (An) apple is on (the) book
[book (+) māthi-postposition + apple + copula]

Muni

मुनि (muni) has the meanings of “below”, “down” or “under”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects below something, or at a lower elevation. For example:
बिरालो कुर्सीमुनि सुत्दै छ (birālo kursī-muni sutdai cha)
= (The) cat is sleeping under (the) chair
[cat + chair (+) muni-postposition + sleeping + is]

छातामुनि के छ ? (chātā-muni ke cha)
= What is under (the) umbrella?
[umbrella (+) muni-postposition + what +copula]

Bhitra

भित्र (bhitra) has the meanings of “inside”. It can also mean “in”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects inside something, or contained within something. For example:
कुकुर घरभित्र कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-bhitra karāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling inside (the) house
[dog + house (+) bhitra-postposition + howling + is]

मान्छेको मनभित्र कस्तो भावना हुन्छ ? (mānche-ko man-bhitra kasto bhāwanā huncha)
= What kind of feeling(s) is inside (a) person’s heart?
[person (+) ko-case marker + heart (+) bhitra-postposition + what kind of + feeling(s) + copula]

Bāhira

बाहिर (bāhira) has the meanings of “outside”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects outside something, or contained outside something. For example:
कुकुर घरबाहिर कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-bāhirakarāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling outside (the) house
[dog + house (+) bāhira-postposition + howling + is]

घरबाहिर को उभिरहँदै छ ? (ghar-bāhira ko ubhiraham̐dai cha)
= Who is (continuously) standing outside (the) house?
[house (+) bāhira-postposition + who + keep standing + is]

Agāḍi

अगाडि (agāḍi) has the meaning of “in front of”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects in front of something. For example:
कुकुर घरअगाडि कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-agāḍikarāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling in front of (the) house
[dog + house (+) agāḍi-postposition + howling + is]

यो बाटोअगाडि भिर छ (yo bāṭo-agāḍi bhira cha)
= (A) cliff is in front of this road
[this + road (+) agāḍi-postposition + cliff + copula]

Pachāḍi

पछाडि (pachāḍi) has the meanings of “behind of” or “behind”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects behind something. For example:
कुकुर घरपछाडि कराउँदै छ (kukur ghar-pachāḍikarāum̐dai cha)
= (A) dog is howling behind (the) house
[dog + house (+) pachāḍi-postposition + howling + is]

रुखपछाडि को चुरोट खाँदै छ ? (rukh-pachāḍi ko curoṭ khām̐dai cha)
= Who is smoking cigarette(s) behind (the) tree?
[tree (+) pachāḍi-postposition + who + cigarette + consuming + is]

Nira

निर (nira) has the meanings of “near”, “nearby” or “close by”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects at the vicinity of something, but not “at” something. Another way to say “nira” is to use the following words, which have identical meanings: नेर (nera), नजिक (najik), छेउ (cheu). For example:
कुकुर मनिर बस्यो (kukur ma-nira basyo)
= (The) dog sat near me
[dog + me (+) nira-postposition + verb]

When I mentioned interchangeability, I meant something like this:
लाजिम्पाट(निर /नेर /नजिक/ छेउ) नै बस्छु! (lājimpāṭ(nira /nera /najika /cheu) nai baschu)
= I (do) live near/around Lazimpat!
[Lazimpat (+) nira-postposition + nai-particle + verb]

The general idea is that you don’t live exactly at Lazimpat, but somewhere close to it. This is conveyed by all three variations of the Postposition. Another way you say that is “around” in English, giving a general description rather than a specific one.

Note that नजिक (najik) is also an adverb, so in places where it functions as such, you cannot replace it with nira or nera, which are both only postpositions.

Wāri

वारि (wāri) has the meaning of “on the same side of”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects which are located on the same side as the speaker. This is of course, relative to the speaker, so your wāri may not necessarily be someone else’s wāri. For example:
बाटोवारिएउटा कुकुर कराउँदै छ (bāṭo-wāri euṭā kukur karāum̐dai cha)
= A dog is howling on the same side of (the) road
[road (+) wāri-postposition + one + dog + howling + is]

गाडी बाटोवारि रोकिदिनुहोस् (gāḍī bāṭo-wāri rokidinuhos)
= (Please) stop the car on the same side of (the) road (as me)
[tree (+) pachāḍi-postposition + who cigarette + consuming + is]

Pāri

पारि (pāri) has the meanings of “on the other side of” or “across”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects which are located on the opposite side as the speaker. This is of course, relative to the speaker, so your pāri may not necessarily be someone else’s pāri, but could be their wāri. For example:
बाटोपारि एउटा कुकुर कराउँदै छ (bāṭo-pāri euṭā kukur karāum̐dai cha)
= A dog is howling on the other side of (the) road
[road (+) pāri-postposition + one + dog + howling + is]

मन्दिर खोलापारि छ (mandir kholā-pāri cha)
= (The) temple is across (the) river
[temple + river (+) pāri-postposition + copula]

Madhye

मध्ये (madhye) has the meaning of “amongst” or “among”. The general feeling of the word is to point at objects which are in the midst of other things. For example:
यो घरहरूमध्ये कुन घर तिम्रो हो ? (yo ghar-harū-madhye kun ghar timro ho)
= Which house is your(s) among these houses?
[this + house (+) pluralizer (+) madhye-postposition + which +house + your(s) + copula]

सबैमध्ये राम्रो यो हो (sabai-madhye rāmro yo ho)
= This is (the) best amongst all
[all (+) madhye-postposition + good +this + copula]

Bic

बिच (bic) is not exactly a postposition, as it is a noun, but when used with the genitive case marker ko, it functions as a postposition to give the meaning of “between (of)”. The first term is marker-optional, that is, you may or may not mark it with a genitive case marker. However, the second term must take a mandatory genitive case marker. An important note is that words modified by genitives still follow the rules of genitive marker addition, that is, if you have certain pronouns, then those pronouns have to be modified as to fit with the genitive marker. For example:
हात्ती तिम्रो र मेरो बिच छ (hāttī timro ra mero bic cha)
= (The) elephant is between you and me.
[elephant + your + and + mine + between + copula]

It is not uncommon to use the locative case marker mā along with bic to give a sense of location:
हाम्रो बिचमा के दुस्मनी छ ? (hāmro bic-mā ke dusmanī cha)
= What enmity there is in between us?
[our + between + mā-case marker + what + enmity + copula]

DYNAMIC PREPOSITIONS

Dynamic postpositions are local postpositions that give the dynamic location of an object, that is, the location can vary or indicates some form of motion.

Samma

सम्म (samma) has the meanings of “until” or “till”. The general feeling of the word is to indicate an upper range, or threshold. For example:
मेरी घरसम्म हिड्ँदै गएछ (merī ghar-samma hiḍm̐dai gaecha)
= Mary went walking until (her) home, it seems!
[Mary + home (+) samma-postposition + walking + agyāt-went]

यहाँसम्म जानुहोस् अनि घुम्नुहोस् (yahām̐-samma jānuhos ani ghumnuhos)
= (Please) go up to here then turn
[Here (+) samma-postposition + go + then + turn]

Tira

तिर (tira) has the meaning of “towards” or “to”. The general feeling of the word is to indicate an object in direction of something or someone. Another way of saying तिर (tira) is तर्फ (tarpha). For example:
मेरी घरतिर हिड्ँदै गयो (merī ghar-tira hiḍm̐dai gayo)
= Mary went walking towards (her) home
[Mary + home (+) tira-postposition + walking + agyāt-went]

You can also use either tira or tarpha:
म(तिर /तर्फ) हेर्नुहोस् (ma-(tira /tarpha) hernuhos)
= (Please) look towards me
[me (+) tira-postposition + verb]

पट्टि (paṭṭi) is also another way of saying तिर (tira), but the difference is that पट्टि (paṭṭi) is more like “facing towards” and tends to be more static. The meaning is also closer to “near to”:
घरपट्टि पर्खाल बनाउनु (ghar-paṭṭi parkhāla banāunu)
= To make (a) fence facing towards (the) house
[house (+) paṭṭi-postposition + fence + verb]

GENITIVE PHRASING

A different way of expressing location also exists in Nepali, that uses the postposition along with a genitive marker to form an entirely new phrase. We call this genitive phrasing, and is very common in Nepali. Let’s break that down. Take the following sentence:
गाउँ डाँडामुनि छ (gāum̐ ḍām̐ḍā-muni cha)
= (The) village is under (the) hill
[village + hill (+) postposition + copula]

Now, you want to talk about the village without using the copula, as to just refer to it as “the village under the hill”, and say for example that “it rained on the village under the hill”. How do you do that?

You first have to establish the relationship between the words. Chiefly, you have to know if A is a part of B, or the other way around. For example, when I say “The cat is under the table”, the cat is the subject (A part), and the subject is at a location (B part along with an adposition). When you do so, you now modify the B part (keeping the postposition) and adding the A part after it to get the same phrase. For example, in the previous Nepali sentence, “the village is under the hill”. We can deduce that the village is part A (the subject) and it located under the hill, making it part B. Now, keep the B part intact (the one with the postposition), and move it to the first position. Add the genitive case marker ko. Then, move the A part to the second part, and treat the overall statement as a phase. For example, our sentence turns into:
डाँडामुनिको गाउँ (ḍām̐ḍā-muni-ko gāum̐)
= (The) village under (the) hill
[hill (+) postposition (+) genitive marker + village]

This phrase can be treated as a single word, so you can make sentences by adding case markers. For example:
डाँडामुनिको गाउँमा पानी पर्‍यो (ḍām̐ḍā-muni-ko gāum̐-mā pānī par‍yo)
= It rained at (the) village under (the) hill

This would be no different than somewhere else, such as:
लाजिम्पाटमा पानी पर्‍यो (lājimpāṭ-mā pānī par‍yo)
= It rained at Lazimpat

As mentioned before, this type of phrasing is very common, as you seldom use copulas to describe locations, but rather bundle the idea of location along with another idea to give a more complex sentence:
खोलापारिको मन्दिरमा को जान्छ? (kholā-pāri-ko mandir-mā ko jāncha)
= Who goes to (the) temple across (the) river?

Let’s look at one more:
घरपछाडिको कुकुर कराउँदै छ (ghar-pachāḍi-ko kukur karāum̐dai cha)
= The dog behind the house is barking

SUMMARY

Local postpositions are postpositions that give more information about the location of something or someone.
Static postpositions are local postpositions that give the static location of an object, that is, the location unchanging and fixed.
माथि (māthi) has the meanings of “above”, “up” or “over”. It can also mean “on”.
मुनि (muni) has the meanings of “below”, “down” or “under”.
भित्र (bhitra) has the meanings of “inside”.
बाहिर (bāhira) has the meanings of “outside”.
अगाडि (agāḍi) has the meaning of “in front of”.
पछाडि (pachāḍi) has the meanings of “behind of” or “behind”.
निर (nira) has the meanings of “near”, “nearby” or “close by”.
Other ways of saying निर (nira): नेर (nera), नजिक (najik), छेउ (cheu).
वारि (wāri) has the meaning of “on the same side of”.
पारि (pāri) has the meanings of “on the other side of” or “across”.
मध्ये (madhye) has the meaning of “amongst” or “among”.
बिच (bic), when used with the genitive case marker ko, functions as a postposition to mean “between”.
Dynamic postpositions are local postpositions that give the dynamic location of an object, that is, the location can vary or indicates some form of motion.
सम्म (samma) has the meanings of “until” or “till”.
तिर (tira) has the meaning of “towards” or “to”.
Other ways of saying तिर (tira) are: तर्फ (tarpha), पट्टि (paṭṭi).
In Genitive Phrasing, you refer back to the word by changing the structure slightly using the genitive case marker.

Postpositions: Causal

INTRODUCTION

Correlation does not equal causation, or so the saying goes. Yet sometimes, you just can’t help but wonder why the global temperatures are rising while the number of pirates are decreasing. Are they somehow related? We’d never know.

Yet, when you look at cause and effect at a grand scale, there are certain times when something results in something happening. There are also times when an action is supported with a reason. When you take this into view, you have causes. In Nepali, you point to a cause using causal postpositions. What are they?

Causal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding cause, or the reason for an action that was undertaken. For example, in the following sentence, the word made bold is what a causal postposition is:
Mr. Brown worked hard for his family.

There are several causal postpositions, and we shall look over them in detail.

VOCABULARY

परिवार (pariwār) = Family
काम गर्नु (kām garnu) = To work (lit. to do work)
छुरी (churī) = Knife
पाउरोटी (pāuroṭī) = Bread
पूजारी (pūjārī) = Priest
काका (kākā) = Younger paternal uncle
युद्ध लड्नु (yuddha laḍnu) = To fight a war
कोरोनाभाइरस (koronabhāiras) = Coronavirus
विद्यालय (vidyālaya) = School
बन्द (banda) = Closed; Shut
घाम (ghām) = Sun
ननिभेको (nanibheko) = Not extinguished, from the negation of the verb निभ्नु (nibhnu) which means “to be extingushed”
चुरोट (curoṭ) = Cigarette
डढेलो (ḍaḍhelo) = Forest fire
डढेलो लाग्नु (ḍaḍhelo lāgnu) = For a forest fire to be started

LĀGI

लागि (lāgi) is a quintessential postposition that roughly has the meaning of “for”. This postposition also requires an obligatory genitive case to be used, that being the use of the genitive case marker को (ko). So, instead of thinking of the postposition as only लागि (lāgi), think of it as “-को लागि (-ko lāgi)” instead. As a consequence, the postposition लागि (lāgi) itself is written separately, and not appended to the word.

To illustrate the separate nature of लागि (lāgi), and how it uses the genitive, let’s look at an example sentence:
म परिवारको लागि काम गर्छु (ma pariwār-ko lāgi kām garchu)
= I work for (the) family
[I + family (+) ko-genitive marker + lāgi-postposition + work + do]

In the sentence above, “family” is modified by the genitive marker ko, and only then is the postposition added (although not appended to the word itself). An important note is that words modified by genitives still follow the rules of genitive marker addition, that is, if you have certain pronouns, then those pronouns have to be modified as to fit with the genitive marker. To show what I mean:
यो मेरो लागि हो (yo mero lāgi ho)
= This is for me
[this + me (+) ro-genitive marker + lāgi-postposition + is]

As noted above, the singular first person pronoun takes on the ro-form of the genitive marker.

Note that although लागि (lāgi) does translate into for, not all cases where you would use “for” would use लागि (lāgi). This is especially true for concepts that involve the use of “for” to indicate time. For example, in sentences where you provide a reference point using “for”, such as “He has been waiting for three hours”, you have to use the case marker देखि (dekhi) instead. This is because देखि (dekhi) is the one you use to show a frame or reference point. If you, however, mean “wait for a limited amount of time”, then you have to use the postposition सम्म (samma) instead, since सम्म (samma) gives the idea of a closed boundary (i.e. has the same connotation of “till”). In Nepali, you have to be a little concise.

निम्ति (nimti) is a more formal form of लागि (lāgi), that being, if you replace all the लागि (lāgi) with निम्ति (nimti), you would still get the same meaning. It also follows the same rules of लागि (lāgi), including requiring a genitive:
यो मेरो निम्ति हो (yo mero nimti ho)
= This is for me
[this + me (+) ro-genitive marker + nimti-postposition + is]

When you think of लागि (lāgi), imagine you are giving away something to someone else, whether it be an object, an action or something abstract. The following are the ways how लागि (lāgi) is used.

Indicates purpose

When you indicate purpose, you are saying that a thing is used for achieving something. For example:
काट्नको लागि छुरी (kāṭna-ko lāgi churī)
= Knife for cutting
[Cutting (+) ko-genitive marker + lāgi-postposition + knife]

Indicates the recipient

When you indicate the recipient of an object or an activity, it means they either receive something, or the action affects them directly. For example:
यो पाउरोटी पूजारीको लागि हो (yo pāuroṭī pūjārī-ko lāgi ho)
= This bread is for (the) priest
[this + bread + priest (+) ko-genitive marker + lāgi-postposition + copula]

In the sentence above, the priest is the receiver of the object. Let’s take another example:
काकाले देशको लागि युद्ध लड्नुभयो (kākā-le deś-ko lāgi yuddha laḍnubhayo)
= (Younger paternal) uncle fought (a) war for (the) country
[uncle (+) le-case marker + country (+) ko-genitive marker + lāgi-postposition + war + verb]

In the sentence above, the country is the receiver of the action of the uncle. You can also use this for other actions and objects (exchange), such as going to the store for someone else, or giving €2 for an apple:
स्याउको लागि २ हो! (syāu-ko lāgi duī ho)
= (It) is (€) 2 for (an) apple!
[apple (+) ko-genitive marker + lāgi-postposition + 2 + copula]

KĀRAṆ

कारण (kāraṇ) is another genitive postposition like लागि (lāgi), but it is not a postposition in the strictest sense. That is because कारण (kāraṇ) is a noun which means “reason”, but when used together with the genitive, it functions exactly like a postposition, thus its inclusion in the list. Furthermore, there are many ways you can express कारण (kāraṇ), and the meaning remains identical. First, let’s see how कारण (kāraṇ) plays in a sentence. When used with the genitive, it means “because of” or “due to”:
कोरोनाभाइरसको कारण विद्यालयहरू बन्द (koronābhāiras-ko kāraṇ vidyālayaharū banda)
= Schools closed because of (the) Coronavirus
[Coronavirus (+) ko-genitive marker + kāraṇ-postposition + schools + closed]

In the sentence above, कारण (kāraṇ) is used to indicate reason for something. However, I would say that the use is somewhat formal, and when you want to transmit the meaning, it is usually replaced by the following postposition: गर्दा (gardā).

GARDĀ

गर्दा (gardā) in its strictest sense is also not a postposition, as it more of a verb derivative than a postposition. However, it essentially functions as a postposition along with the case marker ले (le). The meaning is similar to कारण (kāraṇ), used as “because of” or “due to” to indicate reason or cause. For example:
घामले गर्दा खोला सुक्यो (ghām-le gardā kholā sukyo)
= (The) river dried (up) due to (the) sun
[sun (+) le-case marker + gardā-postposition + river + verb]

In the sentence above, the reason is stated by गर्दा (gardā). One thing to note is that the word before it must be marked by ले (le). Sometimes, you will see गर्दा (gardā) and कारण (kāraṇ) used together often to mean “because of”. It is pedantic, but it is a thing to note, and the meaning is still “because of” or “due to” nevertheless:
घामको कारणले गर्दा खोला सुक्यो (ghām -ko kāraṇ-le gardā kholā sukyo)
= (The) river dried (up) due to (the) sun
[sun (+) ko-genitive marker + kāraṇ (+) le-case marker + gardā-postposition + river + verb]

Here is another sentence:
ननिभेको चुरोटले गर्दा डढेलो लाग्यो (nanibheko curoṭ-le gardā ḍaḍhelo lāgyo)
= (The) forest fire took place because of (a) kindled cigarette
[not-extinguished + cigarette (+) le-case marker + gardā-postposition + forest fire + verb]

SUMMARY

Causal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding cause, or the reason for an action that was undertaken.
लागि (lāgi) is a postposition that roughly means “for”.
लागि (lāgi) requires an obligatory genitive case to be used.
निम्ति (nimti) is a more formal form of लागि (lāgi).
कारण (kāraṇ) is a genitive postposition that means “because of” or “due to”.
गर्दा (gardā) is a replacement for कारण (kāraṇ), because they have the same meaning, but गर्दा (gardā) requires the case marker ले (le) instead.
Sometimes, गर्दा (gardā) and कारण (kāraṇ) are used together.

EXERCISES

Postpositions: Introduction

INTRODUCTION

Imagine your old teacher whittling you away with prepositions, how it functions, and why prepositions are things you never end your sentences with. Can you ever escape the nightmare? With Nepali, you can! Featuring only postpositions, you no longer have to ever worry about ending your sentences with prepositions ever again.

But in a more serious tone, what are postpositions and what do they have to do with prepositions? Just like how prepositions are words that precede another to show a relation of that word with other words, postpositions are words that postcede succeed another to show a relation of that word with other words. In other words, postpositions are connector words that succeed a noun, pronoun or a phrase show its relationship to other words within a sentence, such as to show direction, cause, location etc. They run parallel to English prepositions, and the two are together called adpositions, a word you can immediately forget without consequences after this paragraph ends.

Postpositions are called नामयोगी (nāmyogī) in Nepali.

TYPES OF POSTPOSITIONS

Postpositions should be easier than case markers, as they function at a level similar to prepositions. However, they are also similar to case markers that we have looked at earlier, and in most cases, are appended along with the word they modify. Take the following sentences:

The celebrations happen after the wedding ceremony.
The car is behind the tree.
Calvin lives with his grandparents.
I donated a euro for the cause.

Each sentence consists of several prepositions, which can be translated into postpositions in Nepali. More specifically, the sentences above show the four types of postpositions we will be exploring, namely postpositions that deal with time (the first sentence), postpositions that deal with location (the second sentence), postpositions that deal with mood (the third sentence) and finally, postpositions that deal with cause (the last sentence). Their names are not important to understand, but rather the concept on how to use them. Thus, I will not be naming the specific terms in Nepali, not because I definitely do not know how to or the divisions are arbitrary, but rather because we want to focus on how they work out in a broader sense. Also, some postpositions can be several different types, that being for example, a temporal postposition can also function as a local postposition. There are no hard boundaries, but the terms used are stated so as to help create guidelines.

Causal Postpositions

There are several different causal postpositions, such as: निम्ति (nimti), लागि (lāgi), मार्फत (mārphat) etc.

Local Postpositions

Local postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding location, pointing out more information about where something is located. For example:
The months flew towards the light.

There are many different local postpositions, such as: तिर (tira), भित्र (bhitra), माथि (māthi) etc.

Modal Postpositions

Modal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information about how an action or things are done, or how an action is achieved. It basically deals with the manners by which an action is achieved. For example:
Jordan can’t eat without a spoon.

There are many different modal postpositions, such as: अनुसार (anusār), बिना (binā), झैँ (jhaim̐) etc.

Temporal Postpositions

Temporal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding time. For example:
I will do the work until tomorrow.

There are many different temporal postpositions, such as: अघि (aghi), पछि (pachi), भित्र (bhitra) etc.

POSITION OF POSTPOSITIONS

As the name implies, postpositions come after the word they modify. They are usually appended along with the word (written together), but sometimes they are written separately, especially those which require the use of the genitive case.

SUMMARY

Postpositions are connector words that succeed a noun, pronoun or a phrase show its relationship to other words within a sentence, such as to show direction, cause, location etc. They run parallel to English prepositions.
There are four categories of postpositions: causal, local, modal, temporal
Causal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding cause.
Local postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding location.
Modal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information about how an action or things are done.
Temporal postpositions are postpositions that deal with information regarding time.
Postpositions are written together with the word they modify except in some cases.

EXERCISES

A. IDENTIFY THE PREPOSITIONS IN THE FOLLOWING PARAGRAPH.

A high castle with barbaric towers floated above the heads of mortal men upon whom it ruled with ruthless cruelty. No one knew what that the ruler, who hid behind paper screens, wanted. Was it the servitude of men it had enslaved? The mystery only deepened every passing day. For reasons unknown, before the midday bells rang, the castle always spun against the wind violently, and suddenly stopped. What lied between those walls of peril? Not even the deities of the old had an answer, for they had fallen silent between their walls of dilapidated marble.

B. IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF PREPOSITION USED IN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

1.The mice lived under the streets of London.
2. The pandemic struck fear within people’s hearts.
3. Everyone left the stage except dad, who shared a terrible joke.
4. No one should remain here past midnight.
5. The neighbours left hurriedly for no good reason.

ANSWERS

A. A high castle with barbaric towers floated above the heads of mortal men upon whom it ruled with ruthless cruelty. No one knew what that the ruler, who hid behind paper screens, wanted. Was it the servitude of men it had enslaved? The mystery only deepened every passing day. For reasons unknown, before the midday bells rang, the castle always spun against the wind violently, and suddenly stopped. What lied between those walls of peril? Not even the deities of the old had an answer, for they had fallen silent between their walls of dilapidated marble.
B.1. Local
B.2. Local
B.3. Modal
B.4. Temporal
B.5. Causal

Song: Holaa – Bartika Eam Rai

INTRODUCTION

As a short lesson on improving your vocabulary and introducing you to the wonderful world of Nepali music, I shall be focusing on a song today that is short but full of powerful words. The song is titled होला (holā) by Bartika Eam Rai.

I’ve tried translating the text literally, so I have attached an analysis of the lyrics as well.

LINKS

Youtube – link
Spotify – link

VOCABULARY

शायद (śāyad) = Perhaps
अघि बढ्नु (aghi baḍhnu) = To move forward
झुटो (jhuṭo) = Lie
आखिर (ākhir) = After all; Ultimately
प्रष्ट (praṣṭa) = Clear (as in, concise); Fluent
देह (deha) = (archaic) Body
वास्तविकता (vāstaviktā) = Reality
अपरिचित (aparicit) = Unfamiliar
खोक्रो (khokro) = Empty; Hollow
काल (kāl) = (here) 1. Epoch | 2. Death
धुम्मिनु (dhumminu) = To fog up
बतासिनु (batāsinu) = To fly along (with the wind)
विधाता (vidhātā) = (here) 1. Fate | 2. Creator | 3. Manager
झरी (jharī) = Rain
बन्नु (bannu) = (here) 1. To turn into (something) | 2. To be created
झमझम (jhamjham) = (here) 1. Onomatopoeia for rain falling | (slang) 2. Onomatopoeia for feeling intoxicated
छमछम (chamcham) = Onomatopoeia for the sound a ghungroo (a musical anklet) makes from its small metallic bells
बिलाउनु (bilāunu) = To melt
आतिनु (ātinu) = To panic
जाबो (jābo) = Insignificant; Trivial
भएभरको (bhaebhar-ko) = All of (something)
होला (holā) = Maybe
दोष (doṣ) = Fault; Blame
सारा (sārā) = All (of)
अधिकार (adhikār) = Authority; Jurisdiction

TEXT

शायद कथा यसरी नै अघि बढ्दो हो (śāyad kathā yasarī nai aghi baḍhdo ho)
तर मनलाई कसरी झुटो बोल्छौ? (tara man(a)-lāī kasarī jhuṭo bolchau)
आँखामा त आखिर देखिन्छन् प्रष्ट (ām̐khā-mā ta ākhir dekhinchan praṣṭa)
देहमुनिको तिम्रा सारा वास्तविकता (deha-muni-ko timrā sārā vāstaviktā)
अपरिचित छायाहरू बगेका छन् (aparicit chāyā-harū bagekā chan)
तिमी पहिला हुने ठाउँमा (timī pahilā hune ṭhāum̐-mā)
खोक्रा कालहरू धुम्मिएर (khokrā kāl(a)-harū dhummiera)
बतासिँदै छन् हाम्रो विधाता (batāsim̐dai chan hāmro vidhātā)

हो फेरी तिम्रै सम्झना आयो (ho pherī timrai samjhanā āyo)
त्यही दिनहरू झरी बनी (tyahī din(a)-harū jharī banī)
बर्सदै छन् झमझम छमछम (barsadai chan jhamjham chamcham)
तर बिस्तारै बिलाउँदै छन् (tara bistārai bilāum̐dai chan)
सम्झनाहरू कहाँ, कहाँ? (samjhanā-harū kahām̐, kahām̐)
खुशी हुन्छु सोचेथेँ, तर किन हो? (khuśī hunchu socethem̐, tara kina ho)
आतिन्दै छ जाबो मुटु (ātindai cha jābo muṭu)
आफैले आफैलाई भन्छ, (āphaile āphailāī bhancha)
“ए मुटु! बिर्सिदे न, भएभरका उसका सम्झना”(e muṭu! birside na, bhaebhar-kā uskā samjhanā)

होला, शायद केही थियो, होला (holā, śāyad kehī thiyo, holā)
त्यो झरीको के दोष? (tyo jharīko ke doṣ)
समय मात्र नि हैन (samaya mātra ni haina)
होला, शायद केही थियो, होला (holā, śāyad kehī thiyo, holā)
मेरा सारा शब्दहरूमा त (merā sārā śabda-harū-mā ta)
तिम्रै थिए अधिकार (timrai thie adhikār)
मात्र भएनौ कहिले तिमी मेरो (mātra bhaenau kahile timī mero)

TRANSLATION

शायद कथा यसरी नै अघि बढ्दो हो (śāyad kathā yasarī nai aghi baḍhdo ho)
तर मनलाई कसरी झुटो बोल्छौ? (tara man(a)-lāī kasarī jhuṭo bolchau)
= Perhaps the story moves forward like this,
But how can (you) speak lies to (the) heart?

आँखामा त आखिर देखिन्छन् प्रष्ट (ām̐khā-mā ta ākhir dekhinchan praṣṭa)
देहमुनिको तिम्रा सारा वास्तविकता (deha-muni-ko timrā sārā vāstaviktā)
= In your eyes after all can (it) be seen clearly
(The) entire reality under your body

अपरिचित छायाहरू बगेका छन् (aparicit chāyā-harū bagekā chan)
तिमी पहिला हुने ठाउँमा (timī pahilā hune ṭhāum̐-mā)
= Unfamiliar shadows have flown [like a river],
At the place (where) you were first

खोक्रा कालहरू धुम्मिएर (khokrā kāl(a)-harū dhummiera)
बतासिँदै छन् हाम्रो विधाता (batāsim̐dai chanhāmro vidhātā)
= Empty epochs fog up (and)
Our fate(s) are flying along (with the wind)

हो फेरी तिम्रै सम्झना आयो (ho pherī timrai samjhanā āyo)
त्यही दिनहरू झरी बनी (tyahī din(a)-harū jharī banī)
= Yes, your memory came again
By turning into rain, those (same) days

बर्सदै छन् झमझम छमछम (barsadai chan jhamjham chamcham)
तर बिस्तारै बिलाउँदै छन् (tara bistārai bilāum̐dai chan)
= Are raining down, pitter patter
But slowly (it) is melting

सम्झनाहरू कहाँ, कहाँ? (samjhanā-harū kahām̐, kahām̐)
खुशी हुन्छु सोचेथेँ, तर किन हो? (khuśī hunchu socethem̐, tara kina ho)
= (The) memories, (but) where, where?
I thought I’ll be happy, but why is it?

आतिन्दै छ जाबो मुटु (ātindai cha jābo muṭu)
आफैले आफैलाई भन्छ, (āphaile āphailāī bhancha)
“ए मुटु! बिर्सिदे न, भएभरका उसका सम्झना”(e muṭu! birside na, bhaebhar-kā uskā samjhanā)
= This insignificant heart is panicking,
It says to itself,
“Oh heart! Please forget, all of his memories”

होला, शायद केही थियो, होला (holā, śāyad kehī thiyo, holā)
त्यो झरीको के दोष? (tyo jharīko ke doṣ)
= Maybe, perhaps it was something, maybe
What fault of that rain?

समय मात्र नि हैन (samaya mātra ni haina)
(…)
मेरा सारा शब्दहरूमा त (merā sārā śabda-harū-mā ta)
= It is not only (the) time
(…)
In (the) entirety of my words, after all

तिम्रै थिए अधिकार (timrai thie adhikār)
मात्र भएनौ कहिले तिमी मेरो (mātra bhaenau kahile timī mero)
= You had the jurisdiction,
Only (that) you never became mine

ANALYSIS

The song basically laments the loss of a budding relationship. The song is built upon the word “maybe”, which serves as the focal point upon which the singer focuses on various aspects such as missed opportunities and what-if’s. The singer contemplates if her life story simply moves forward, but asks the other person if this is what they truly want. After all, the reality of their desires can be clearly seen in their eyes.

Time and again, the uncertainty flows by, which is represented by the “unfamiliar” shadows flowing past, which is likely insecurities and fears they hold. Although the other person gave much priority before, now much time has passed, letting their fates just evaporate with the wind. The singer affirms that their memories come again and again, and they come as if they were rain falling on her, akin to nostalgia. However, she also says that the memories are slowly fading away, and she does not where it is fading to.

She though that she’ll end up happy, but deep inside, she’s worried. Her heart begs itself to forget all of the memories. She wonders if it truly was something, and decides that the blame did not lay on the days she spent with them. Although she had her heart for them, she laments that ultimately, she could not call them her’s.

EXERCISES

1. In the line बर्सदै छन् झमझम छमछम (barsadai chan jhamjham chamcham), what is the significance of the second onomatopoeia (chamcham) used?
2. Although the root adjective is खोक्रो (khokro), why does it appear as खोक्रा (khokrā) in the song?
3. Why is it तिम्रै थिए अधिकार (timrai thie adhikār) and not तिम्रै थियौ अधिकार (timrai thiyau adhikār)
4. Find two synonyms for: झरी (jharī)
5. What is the significance of न (na) in बिर्सिदे न (birside na)? What form is the verb (birside) in?

ANSWERS (illustrative purposes only)

1. The sound of the metallic bells of the anklet is likened to the sound rain makes when it falls
2. Plural declension
3. The verb is declining for अधिकार (adhikār), which is in third person, however it is declined in plural to show some level of respect
4. पानी (pānī), वर्षा (varṣā)
5. Softens the tone of the imperative (command). The verb is in imperative and conjugated for 2nd person (low respect)

Folktale: Why We Cannot See Death

This is a rather interesting folktale from Nepal. I am very unsure about the details, but I do know the gist of the story. So let’s just say that this is my own twist to the story. There are many different words for ‘death’, but the one used here is ‘काल’ (kaal). काल (kaal) can also mean time, but when it is meant as ‘death’, it is rather taken in the meaning of ‘time of dying’. The expression काल आउनु (kaal aaunu) means ‘For death to come’.

This folktale attempts to explain why we cannot see Death. It begins by personifying death as an entity and contains some supernatural elements. Just like any other folklore, it has a lot of variation (and sometimes a different ending!) I try to be as literal as possible, so the English isn’t exactly Shakespearean.

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STORY

एकादेशमा एउटा जवान मान्छे थियो। त्यो मान्छे एक दिन घरमा बस्दैगर्दा काल उसको ढोकामा आइपुग्यो। काल देखेर त्यो मान्छेलाई डर लाग्यो।

कालले उसलाई भन्यो, “म काल हुँ। तिम्रो मृत्यु अबको एक हप्तामा हुन्छ।” यो सुनेर त्यो मान्छेलाई धेरै डर लाग्यो। त्यो मान्छेले सोध्यो, “तपाईं काल नै हो र ?” यो सुनेर कालले एउटा बाटोमा हिँडिरहेको मान्छेलाई देखायो। त्यो बटुवा त्यहीँ नै मर्‍यो। यो देखेर त्यो मान्छेलाई धेरै डर लाग्यो। कालले उसलाई भन्यो, “म तिमीलाई अब को सातामा लिन आउँछु।”

काल गएपछि त्यो मान्छेले जुक्ति निकाल्यो। त्यो साताभित्र उसले सबैभन्दा माथिलो तलाको एउटा कोठामा ठूलो फलामको ढोका बनायो। त्यो फलामको ढोकामा एउटा ठूलो आँख्लो राख्यो।

एक हप्तापछि काल उसको घरमा आयो। त्यो मान्छेले उसलाई “घर देखाउँछु” भनेर त्यो माथिलो तलाको कोठामा लाग्यो। हतार हतार त्यो मान्छे त्यो कोठाबाट निक्लेर त्यो ढोका बन्द गर्‍यो र त्यो आँख्लो लगाइदियो। काल निक्लन सकेन। काल त्यो कोठाको कैदी भयो।

यो घटना भएको धेरै बर्ष भइसकेको थियो। तर यो बिचको समयमा केही जन्तुको मृत्यु भएन। यो देखेर यमराज आत्तिए। यमराज अब आफैँ काल खोज्न गयो।

खोज्दै गर्दा यमराजले काल थुनिएको घरमा आइपुग्यो। उसले काललाई मुक्त गर्‍यो। यो घटनाले गर्द काल आघात भएको थियो। कालले धन्यवाद दिँदै यमराजलाई भन्यो, “प्रभु, म अब यो काम गर्दिन।” यो सुनेर यमराजले भन्यो, “काम त गर्नै पर्छ। बरु तिमी काम गर्दा कसैले नदेख्ने चै बनाइदिन्छु।” त्यसैले काल आउँदा कसैले काललाई देख्दैनन्।

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MEANING

एकादेशमा एउटा जवान मान्छे थियो (ekadesh`ma euta jawaan manche thiyo)
= Once upon a time, there was a young person.

त्यो मान्छे एक दिन घरमा बस्दैगर्दा काल उसको ढोकामा आइपुग्यो (tyo manche ek din ghar`ma basdaigarda kaal usko dhoka`ma aaipugyo)
= That person one day while sitting at home, Death came to his door.

काल देखेर त्यो मान्छेलाई डर लाग्यो (kaal dekhera tyo manche`lai dar laagyo)
= After seeing Death, that person felt afraid.

कालले उसलाई भन्यो, “म काल हुँ (kaal`le uslai bhanyo, “ma kaal hu)
= Death told him, “I am Death.

तिम्रो मृत्यु अबको एक हप्तामा हुन्छ (timro mrityu aba`ko ek hapta`ma huncha)
= Your death will happen one week from now.

यो सुनेर त्यो मान्छेलाई धेरै डर लाग्यो (yo sunera tyo manche`lai dherai dar laagyo)
= After hearing this, he felt very afraid.

त्यो मान्छेले सोध्यो, “तपाईं काल नै हो र (tyo manche`le sodhyo, “tapai kaal nai ho ra)
= That person asked, “Are you really Death?”

यो सुनेर कालले एउटा बाटोमा हिँडिरहेको मान्छेलाई देखायो (yo sunera kaal`le euta baato`ma hidiraheko manche`lai dekhayo)
= After hearing this, Death pointed out to a person walking on the street.

त्यो बटुवा त्यहीँ नै मर्‍यो (tyo batuwa tyahi nai maryo)
= That pedestrian died (then and) there.

यो देखेर त्यो मान्छेलाई धेरै डर लाग्यो (yo dekhera tyo manche`lai dherai dar laagyo)
= After seeing this, the person felt very afraid.

कालले उसलाई भन्यो, “म तिमीलाई अबको सातामा लिन आउँछु (kaal`le uslai bhanyo, “ma timi`lai aba`ko saata`ma lina aauchu)
= Death told him, “I shall come to get you one week from now.

काल गएपछि त्यो मान्छेले जुक्ति निकाल्यो (kaal gaepachi tyo manche`le jukti nikaalyo)
= After death left, that person took out an idea. [thought of an idea]

त्यो साताभित्र उसले सबैभन्दा माथिलो तलाको एउटा कोठामा ठूलो फलामको ढोका बनायो (tyo sata`bihtra usle sabaibhanda mathilo tala`ko euta kotha`ma thulo phalaam`ko dhoka banayo)
= Within that week, he made a big iron door on a room on the topmost floor.

त्यो फलामको ढोकामा एउटा ठूलो आँख्लो राख्यो (tyo phalam`ko dhoka`ma euta thulo aakhlo rakyo)
= He kept a big akhlo on the iron door.

एक हप्तापछि काल उसको घरमा आयो (ek hapta`pachi kaal usko ghar`ma ayo)
= After one week, Death came to his house.

त्यो मान्छेले उसलाई “घर देखाउँछु” भनेर त्यो माथिलो तलाको कोठामा लाग्यो (tyo manche`le uslai “ghar dekhauchu” bhanera tyo mathilo tala`ko kotha`ma lagyo)
= That person after saying “(I’ll) show the house” took Death to that uppermost floor.

हतार हतार त्यो मान्छे त्यो कोठाबाट निक्लेर त्यो ढोका बन्द गर्‍यो र त्यो आँख्लो लगाइदियो (hatar hatar tyo manche tyo kotha`bata niklera tyo dhoka banda garyo ra tyo aakhlo lagaaidyo)
= Hurriedly, that person got out of that room, locked that door and placed the akhlo.

काल निक्लन सकेन (kaal niklana sakena)
= Death could not get out.

काल त्यो कोठाको कैदी भयो (kaal tyo kotha`ko kaidi bhayo)
= Death became a prisoner of that room.

यो घटना भएको धेरै बर्ष भइसकेको थियो (yo ghatana bhaeko dherai barsa bhaisakeko thiyo)
= This event happened many years ago.

तर यो बिचको समयमा केही जन्तुको मृत्यु भएन (tara yo bich`ko samaya`ma kehi jantu`ko mrityu bhaena)
= Within that period, no organism’s death happened.

यो देखेर यमराज आत्तिए (yo dekhera yamraj attiye)
= Yamaraj became worried after seeing this.

यमराज अब आफैँ काल खोज्न गयो (yamaraj aba aafai kaal khojna gayo)
= Yamaraj himself went to look for Death.

खोज्दै गर्दा यमराजले काल थुनिएको घरमा आइपुग्यो (khojdai garda yamaraj`le kal thunieko ghar`ma aipugyo)
= While searching, Yamaraj came at the house where Death was locked.

उसले काललाई मुक्त गर्‍यो (usle kaal`lai mukta garyo)
= He freed Death.

यो घटनाले गर्दा काल आघात भएको थियो (yo ghatna`le garda kaal aaghaat bhaeko tihyo)
= Because of this event Death was traumatised.

कालले धन्यवाद दिँदै यमराजलाई भन्यो, “प्रभु, म अब यो काम गर्दिन।” (kaal`le dhayabaad didai yamaraaj`lai bhanyo, “prabhu, ma aba yo kaam gardina”)
= Death thanked Yamaraj and told him, “Lord, I will not do this work from no on.”

यो सुनेर यमराजले भन्यो, “काम त गर्नै पर्छ। (yo sunera yamaraj`le bhanyo, “kaam ta garnai parcha)
= After hearing this Yamaraj told, “(You have) to do work.

बरु तिमी काम गर्दा कसैले नदेख्ने चै बनाइदिन्छु।” (baru timi kaam garda kasaile nadekhne chai banaidinchu)
= Rather, I’ll make it that no one will see you when you do your work.

त्यसैले काल आउँदा कसैले काललाई देख्दैनन् (tyasaile kaal auda kasaile kaallai dekhdainan)
= That’s why no one sees Death when Death arrives.

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VOCABULARY

जवान (jawan) = Young

काल (kaal) = 1. (here) Death 2. Time

मृत्यु (mrityu) = Death

बटुवा (batuwa) = Pedestrian; Person who walks on the street

साता (sata) = Seven days; Week

जुक्ति (jukti) = Idea; Plan

तला (tala) = Floor; Storey

फलाम (phalam) = Iron

आँख्लो (akhlo) = A long vertical bar across a doorway that acts as a lock